Abstract:Package managers are legion. Every programming language and operating system has its own solution, each with subtly different semantics for dependency resolution. This fragmentation prevents multilingual projects from expressing precise dependencies across language ecosystems; it leaves external system and hardware dependencies implicit and unversioned; it obscures security vulnerabilities that lie in the full dependency graph. We present the \textit{Package Calculus}, a formalism for dependency resolution that unifies the core semantics of diverse package managers. Through a series of formal reductions, we show how this core is expressive enough to model the diversity that real-world package managers employ in their dependency expression languages. By using the Package Calculus as the intermediate representation of dependencies, we enable translation between distinct package managers and resolution across ecosystems.
Recent examination of some ancient rocks from the west coast of Scotland has now overturned that thinking, suggesting there were periods during snowball Earth when the climate woke up.
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And there are some exquisite, multicoloured glass beads. Measuring about 3mm across, each one is a miniature delight. They were possibly stitched onto clothing or attached to a piece of jewellery.